There were striking similarities between the religion of the people of Israel and that of nearby peoples. For many, this is a reason to view Israel’s religion as fully embedded in and explainable from the religion of the entire Middle East. Is this correct?
The Edomites
The Edomites are the descendants of Esau (Gen. 25:30, 36:1,8,43). The word Edom comes from the Semitic word for red, the color of the food that Esau ate at the expense of his birthright (Gen 25:30) and the color of the many sandstones that abounded in the Edomite region. The people are identified in the Bible with the people of Seir (e.g. Gen 32:3; 36:8; Judg 5:4), south of the Dead Sea.
In the very beginning, roughly the time up to Israel’s wilderness journey, Edom was probably not a real nation, but family heads and/or regional leaders held power (tribal leaders: Gen 36:15-19; 40-43; Ex 15: 15).
The Edomites have always been at war with the Kings of Israel. This had already been foretold by Isaac, who prophetically declared Esau’s submission to Jacob (Gen 27:27-29,37). Obadiah foretold Edom’s destruction because of the attitude of the Edomites during the invasion and of the Arabs and Philistines during Jehoram.
Both Saul and David acted successfully against the Edomites (1 Sam 14:47; 2 Sam 8:13). David almost completely exterminated the militant part of the Edomites and subdued the people (1 Kings 11:15). This gave him access to large copper reserves and control over important trade routes. Yet the Edomites were later able to reorganize (via the Edomite Hadad who had escaped the sword of David, 1 Kings 11: 15-22) and rebel against Solomon (1 Kings 11:14,21,25). Eventually they even became independent again. After this, the Edomites were incorporated into Assyria and were conquered in the 6th century BC. overrun by Babylonia (Jer 27:2ff; 49:7-22; Eze 32:29). At the time of Malachi, Edom was in ruins (Mal 1:2-4). Eventually the Edomites spread out and were swallowed up by Nomadic infiltrations from the Arab world.
The language of the Edomites was Semitic and close to Moabite and Hebrew.
Relatively little is known about the religion of the Edomites. From some potsherds found, it has been concluded that the religion of the Edomites mainly revolved around the gods and goddesses of fertility. A special God was Quaus (or Koze). It is likely that the Edomites also worshiped the god El or Eloah. The Edomites here relied on a common root with the people of Israel. The God of Israel, Elohim, is described in the Old Testament as coming from Teman (Hab. 3:3), an area enclosed within the Edomite borders. Moses describes the coming of Elohim from Sinai and the ascending of Elohim over Seir (De 33:2, compare also Judges 5:4).
The Moabites
The word Moab probably means my father’s. Lot’s eldest daughter named her son, who was begotten by her father, Moab (Gen 19:37). Perhaps this forever reminded the Israelites of their incestuous origins. The Moabites lived on a small and high plateau east of the Dead Sea, between the valleys of the rivers Arnon and Zered.
The Moabites had dominance over the most important east-west trade route. However, this came to an end when Ehud defeated the Moabite king Eglon (Judg 3). During a great famine, Naomi found refuge among the Moabites. David also found refuge there, namely when he was fleeing from Saul (1 Sam 22:2-5). However, it was later David who took particularly strict action against the Moabites (2 Sam 8:2). Ultimately, the Moabites enjoyed long periods of prosperity and development before they were overrun by Arab tribes and the Nabataeans in the 2nd century BC.
The Moabite language was a Semitic dialect, similar to ancient Aramaic.
The most important deity was the god Chemosh. He was the king of all the Moabite gods; the abomination of Moab (1Cor 11:7, 2 Cor 23:13, Num 21:29, etc). Proper national veneration of him and obedience to his decrees was a prerequisite for national security. Animal sacrifices were offered on high places (hilltops, see also Num 22:40; 23:1,14,24) and on upright stones (menhirs). The spoils of war were often banned and thus dedicated to Chemosh. According to Moabite tradition, Chemosh occasionally came into direct contact with leaders of the Moabite people. Then he gave specific orders about the wars to be waged, the war strategies and the destination of the spoils of war.
Another important deity was the goddess Astarte, the goddess of fertility . Images of her have been found on potsherds. These are representations of a woman holding an object such as a loaf of bread against her chest. Sexual ceremonies played an important role in the worship of Astarte.
The Canaanites
The Canaanites were not an ethnic unit and as such it is difficult to speak of the Canaanites as a people. In the Bible the name Canaanite seems to mean only: inhabitant of Canaan (Gen 12:5; Gen 15:18-21, Ex 3:8; Deut 7:1 etc). The fertile and strategically important area of Canaan (approximately present-day Israel and Lebanon) had attracted many peoples and tribes who had actually settled there long before Abram’s entry into the land. This probably created a melting pot of all kinds of Semitic, Indo-Germanic and Lesser Asian tribes.
Due to the relatively recent discovery of many clay tablets from a temple library in Rash Shamra (northern Syria), much has become known about the religion of the Canaanite peoples. The main thing here is that there was a lot of variation in religious accents and experiences. Religious traditions from various surrounding peoples were also found among the population of Canaan. The integration of religious customs from outside involved much syncretism, in which existing and new elements were interwoven and adapted into a new unity.
An important god was the god Baal. However, it is unclear who or what exactly he was and did. It is clear that he was an important nature god (god of the earth, thunder, weather), with many local variations. Parents often gave their children names that included the name of this god (e.g., Abibaal, my father is Baal, Ahibah, my brother is Baal), to express the relationship between the devoted human and Baal. Baal was worshiped in prayer and through an elaborate sacrificial service. Baal answered, among other things, through signs in animal livers and through direct inspiration. Other important gods were: Dagon, Anath, Astarte. The Bible refers to these gods. Less important, although important for certain regions, were for example: Ilib (the lord of ancestor worship), Hadad (the god of the storm), Mot (death, the realm of the dead) and Sapas (a sun god). An interesting deity was the god Yam, son of El. He was the god of the sea. Some Bible interpreters see Eze 28:1-8, where the prince of Tire is destroyed in the sea, as an analogy with the mythological conflict between Baal and Yam. The gods Chemosh and Molek were also important, depending on the tribe and region in question. Probably human sacrifices were offered to these gods with some regularity, especially in connection with fertility and the consecration of the birthright (Lev 18:21, 20:1-5, 2Cor 23:10, Jer 32:35).
It is interesting to consider what religious concepts peoples such as the Canaanite had developed. In general, the gods were considered sacred, exalted above earthly life, terrifying and fascinating at the same time. Someone who was in their favor could expect life and all kinds of earthly blessings. People could please the gods by, among other things, adhering to an extensive sacrificial system, often associated with special temples. Good deeds were rewarded by the gods, bad ones were punished. The spirits of survivors were taken into account, but a clear teaching on life after death was lacking.
Worship of the gods was of great importance. This often happened on high places, but raised stones could also be used. These stones then symbolized the male gods (whether the gods actually lived in the stones is not known). Oil and blood were then smeared on the stones. Wooden poles were erected for the worship of the goddesses. Altars were often also erected in such places. The reigns of the Judean Kings are often evaluated in the Bible by the extent to which the king in question had destroyed all these means of worship and places of sacrifice (e.g. 2 Kings 18:1-4; 2 Chron 33:1-3). Josiah seems to have put a radical end to it (2 Kings 22-23, about 621 BC).
Another characteristic of the Canaanite peoples, among others, were the sgn. shrines. These were usually public buildings for holding religious meetings. Other religious spaces included the funerary palaces (for the cult of dead kings) and family tombs (ancestor worship).
The temple service was an important part of the Canaanite religions . Depending on the tribe and region, there was a high priest, priests, scribes, sanctified prostitutes and temple serfs. There were two (main) types of sacrifices. First of all, the burnt offerings to the gods. In addition, there was the community sacrifice, in which the animal was eaten in whole or in part as a communal and sacred meal. There are indications that libations were also made in Canaan, perhaps especially to the gods and powers of soil fertility.
The Egyptians
Relatively much is known about the religion and culture of the Egyptians. Through archaeological studies, much information has been found dating back to ancient times.
There are at least 39 gods and goddesses known to the Egyptians. There is quite a lot of overlap in their characteristics and sphere of influence. Some gods were natural elements, such as the sun (Aten, Re), the sky (Nut), the earth (Geb), and the Nile (Hapi). Other gods are abstractions, such as Anon (the god of the dynamic movement of air), Osiris (life, death), his wife Isis (fertility) and Thot/Djenti (the god of speech, writing and mathematics).
The Egyptians had a strongly pantheistic view of nature. Something divine was present in all parts of nature and therefore everything in nature deserved respect. Thus, wild and/or dangerous animals, such as scorpions, hippos and crocodiles, were also treated with a certain respect. Some animals were objects of worship for the Egyptians (scarab, snake).
In Egypt, as elsewhere in the time of the Old Testament, there was no developed systematic theology. Despite the existence of several powerful priestly centers (cosmogonies) and a relatively developed culture, theology was limited to the refinement and transmission of many ordinances and commandments and a large number of myths and legends. As the centers of political power shifted throughout the country, so did the centers of religion. The religion was thus continuously adapted to and intertwined with the religious customs in the regions concerned, resulting in a continuous process of syncretism.
Of the various religious concepts, the following are the most important:
- The divine kingship. Since the earliest Egyptian dynasties, the king has been regarded as a personification of important deities. In and even before the first dynastic times, kings were seen as personifications of the god Horus, whose name they bore. Later kings and pharaohs were incarnations of the son of the sun god Re, or of the sun god himself. Still later, the god Osiris incarnated in the Egyptian leaders. This was the god of the realm of the dead, but at the same time of resurrection and of life in nature. This was also a well-known deity outside Egypt.
- The embalming and burial of bodies of kings. The bodies of the divine leaders were carefully preserved after death. To this end, the intestines (and also the brain) were removed and the body soaked in salt. After this, the body was covered and rubbed with various oils and resins and then wrapped in linen cloths. Initially the body was simply buried in earth, on which a large pile of stones was then piled. Later people increasingly turned to the construction of pyramids. Usually accompanying the body were a large number of utensils.
The concept of life after death was certainly present, for example the many utensils that were added to the body during the funeral and all the other attention that was paid to the body of a deceased person. Initially, however, this life was reserved for the kings. Later it was gradually extended to the nobles among the Egyptians and still later to all people. Further theological explanations are lacking.
A striking element in Egyptian religion was the way of celebrating. On the birthdays of the gods, on the first day of the month and on special events, it was customary to bring the deity in question out of his or her shrine. Usually the deity resided in a dark sanctuary in a temple, but on a festival day the god appeared to the people and strode in procession through the streets.
In the Bible, Egypt symbolizes the center of Satan. In 1 Cor 10, the events surrounding the Exodus are presented to the Christian as an example. This symbolically depicts, among other things, the redemptive work of Christ and for example Rev 11:8 speaks of Christ being crucified in Egypt. The Christian church has always understood the inscription of the Ten Commandments to mean that Egypt is the bondage of sin.
Philistines
The Philistines probably originated from Crete (Caphtor: Deu 2:23; Jer 47:4). They lived on the southern sea coast of Canaan, south of Jaffa, and are already mentioned in the time of Abraham and Isaac (Gen 21,32,34,26 etc). Over time, various tribes from the east and south joined the tribes in Canaan, becoming a formidable nation. Israel often had to struggle against this under, for example, Samson, Samuel, Saul and David.
The Philistines had five cities: Gaza, Ashkelon , Ashdod, Ekron and Gath, each led by a city prince. These city princes were in communication with each other so that the Philistine people could act in a well-organized manner (E.g. 1 Sam 5 and 6). In Eli’s time they captured the Ark of the Covenant at the battle of Aphek (1 Sam 4). And despite Samuel’s victory over the Philistines (1 Sam 7) and David’s victory over Goliath (1 Sam 17), the Philistines continued to terrorize the people of Israel for a long time. King David silenced them for a long time.
After the division of the empire, there is war between the Philistines and the ten tribes (1 Kings 15:27 etc). Judah also had to endure a lot from the Philistines, up to and including the plundering of Jerusalem under King Jehoram (2 Kings 21:16ff).
Among the gods of the Philistines the following occupied an important place:
- Baal-zebub, the ‘Baal of the flies’. This god was worshiped in Ekron (2 Kings 1:2ff). He is also called Beelzebul, but it is unclear whether this refers to the same god. The Israelite king Ahaziah consulted Baal-zebub to ask whether he would be healed of his illness (2 Kings 1:2).
- Dagon. Although this god is associated with the Philistines in the Old Testament (Judges 16:23; 1 Sam 5:2-7; 1 Chron 10:10), the worship of the god Dagon was not limited to this people. The god Dagon was known from ancient times in Babylonia, Assyria and also in Phoenicia. It is not well known exactly what kind of deity Dagon was. Perhaps he had an important influence on the climate. According to some, he was known as the father of Baal. When confronted with the ark of the covenant, Dagon lost his head and both hands (1 Sam 5:1-5).
Conclusion
The actual nature of the religion of Israel in the time of the Old Testament can only be discovered through a faithful study of the Bible. Exodus 33 describes how God no longer wants to go with His people. He wants to send an Angel. He may want to protect and bless the people. Perhaps the Israelites could even apply the newly received laws and ordinances from God, but He Himself no longer wants to be there. And then Moses says that there is no point in going up if God Himself does not go along. For Moses, what distinguished Israel from the Gentiles was not so much the sacrificial service, or the ordinances and commandments, but the personal presence of God (verse 16). It was about a personal relationship with the God and Heavenly Father of Israel.