‘What were the causes of Chinese migration in the second half of the 19th century and what were the concrete living conditions they found themselves in afterwards?’
Introduction
Stability was lost in 19th century China. Unbalanced conditions among the population led to internal skirmishes, poverty and dire living conditions among certain population groups. This situation made many Chinese long for alternatives. America was a country that offered better prospects for a livable future in this respect. Thus, many Chinese, following the example of the Germans and Irish, decided to migrate to the United States in search of a more comfortable lifestyle. In contrast to the German and Irish immigrants, they mainly settled in the West of the country.
This paper focuses on the mass migration from China to the United States in the second half of the 19th century. The aspects that contributed to this phenomenon are central here. The migration was brought about by both factors that drove people away from China and also by aspects that made it attractive to migrate to America. Among the latter, one must mainly take into account the employment that the country had to offer in various sectors. In particular, the discovery of the Californian gold mines and the construction of a transcontinental train network provided ample employment for the migrants. In addition, the Opium War, a struggle between powerful Great Britain and China, and internal uprisings such as the Taiping Rebellion created a climate of unrest and poverty in the Far East. Due to this situation, many Chinese found their way to the United States.
At its peak in the 19th century, just over 100,000 Chinese were in America. These were mainly concentrated in the west and it was therefore not illogical that this led to reactions from other people. This created a negative attitude towards migrants, both among white natives and Europeans. Here we also look at the evolution of this situation and the unsuccessful attempts to improve the relationship between the two nations.
Migration to America and living conditions in the United States
Factors that stimulated the migration of Chinese to America
In the second half of the 19th century, more and more Chinese chose to try their luck in the United States. This choice was influenced by a number of push and pull factors. Certain aspects contributed to the attractiveness of the American Pacific, which made it economically very interesting for Chinese workers to make the crossing. Between 1849 and 1880, California’s gold mines and transcontinental rail traffic were the main drivers for this. After gold was discovered in San Francisco in 1848, 325 Chinese gold seekers headed to California shortly afterwards. About three years later this number had risen to 20,000 and in 1880 there were already 105,000 immigrants from China. It should be noted that as early as 1870, only a quarter of the Chinese migrants who moved to America were still working in the mines. The gold mining industry had become a capital-intensive business, gold was less available than before and legislation had been promulgated that prevented Chinese from working in the mines. The construction of the transcontinental train network provided a perfect alternative for the Chinese population. After all, this required both capital and labor. Charles Crocker, who had been appointed director of the Central Pacific Railroad network, was the first to see benefit in accepting Chinese labor. Not only were they reliable and hard workers, but they were also satisfied with wages that were considerably lower than those of European and native workers. In addition, they were less likely to get sick than other people because they drank tea instead of water, which was often contaminated. By the end of the 1860s, 90 percent of the workers in this network were of Chinese origin. At the end of the 19th century, the Chinese were almost exclusively employed in this sector.
In addition, there were also a number of factors that reflected not the appeal of the United States, but the unpleasant conditions in China in the 1850s. For example, the Opium War, the Taiping Rebellion and other internal skirmishes contributed to the exodus of countless Chinese. The ever-growing population and the associated deteriorating living conditions also drove those who were physically capable to other countries.
Opium was a drug that had been used in China for several generations before the outbreak of the Opium War in 1839. It was a drug that people used to escape the monotonous and tense life in the Far East. This had to be smuggled from Great Britain to reach its destination. In line with their policy, the Chinese authorities also wanted to impose strict trade restrictions here, which resulted in a three-year war between China and Great Britain. The latter was too powerful as a nation for the Qing dynasty. China lost the battle and entered a period of malaise and oppression. One of the consequences of this war was that confidence in the government of the Qing dynasty was seriously damaged. In addition, the population continued to grow, leading to a shortage of land, a surplus of labor and to several periods of famine. These circumstances made the population susceptible to domestic revolts. Hong Xiuqian, a mystic influenced by Christianity, was the inspiration of a sect of which he became leader. This sect rebelled against the decadent policies of the Qing Dynasty, which later became known as the Taiping Rebellion which took place from 1851 to 1864. This raged mainly in the Jangste River valley and probably resulted in the deaths of 20 to 30 million people.
Living conditions in America
The behavior of white Americans towards the immigrant Asians was mixed, but initially there was a high degree of tolerance. Although there are some examples of Chinese people who were able to build a nicely balanced life in the US, in the late 1860s that tolerance had to make way for sarcasm, economic discrimination, legal assaults, assaults, murders, …
That racial hostility was here. and especially in the west, where most Chinese settled – already developing in the 1850s, which manifested itself in a growing anti-Chinese movement. This was based on the racial, political and cultural specificity of the Americans. These specific traits were a kind of unconscious boundary that demarcated the people to distinguish themselves as a superior race compared to the Chinese migrants, even though this went against enlightened principles such as morality and the rational view towards racial indifference.
Anti-Chinese political unrest erupted along the West Coast of the United States in the 1850s, led by European migrants who disagreed with the principle of free labor. They mainly opposed the black and Chinese population. The resentment towards the Chinese took on increasing proportions. This turned into aggression and lasted for several decades. In 1862 alone, 88 Chinese were said to have been murdered by white Americans and Europeans.
However, in the 1860s the Chinese Empire made efforts to maintain livable conditions for citizens in other countries, and especially in the United States. During that decade, a huge number of complaints were filed before the federal courts in connection with this intercontinental issue. In 1861, American minister Anson Burlingame came into contact with Tsungli Yamen, the government department of foreign affairs of imperial China under the Qin dynasty. Thanks to his sympathy for Chinese imperialism, he quickly won the trust of the Chinese authorities, who promptly appointed him Chinese ambassador to America in 1867. His assignment was to project a positive image of China in the superpower America. A year later, he went to the United States to make new proposals regarding the relationship between China and America, based on a better understanding between the two countries. In his treaty proposal, Burlingame advocated for the territorial integrity of China, a free flow of migration for Chinese workers to America, reciprocal rights regarding residence and travel, and freedom of intervention in China’s development. His proposals met with little interest from the American government: they resulted in neither a signed treaty nor a mediating declaration regarding equal rights for Chinese and native Americans.
The growing hatred towards the Chinese was a complex issue. It was based on interpersonal connections between class, race and gender. In 1877, a special works council, consisting of 59 witnesses, met in California with the aim of limiting the influx of Chinese immigrants. Some council members denounced the filthy conditions in which immigrants from the so-called Chinatowns lived. These were also places where the prostitution industry could fully develop for the benefit of white natives. BE Loyd, a contemporary from what was then San Francisco, described the segments as places of crime, pollution, disease and immorality. Although the Chinese workers did not necessarily steal the work from the more specialized and organized white workers, frustration took over for most of them after the Civil War. California Democrats used the anti-China sentiment as a tool to increase their political influence. They labeled the Chinese workers as slaves who were unfair competitors to the free workers.
As the 19th century evolved, Chinese Americans faced increasing opposition from various population groups. They were especially feared by white workers, white middle-class women, and working women.
The far-reaching opposition to Chinese migrants initially only took place at the regional level, but later expanded to the national political platform and eventually escalated into anti-Chinese legislation. For example, in the 1860s, laws were passed requiring people of Chinese origin to pay extra taxes and requiring people who helped Asians to migrate to pay high fines if they could not prove they were of good character. Many laws were aimed at controlling the lifestyle and working habits of the Chinese. For example, from 1860 onwards, Chinese children were not admitted to public schools and Chinese miners were forced to pay extra taxes. In other words, the native population did everything they could to make the situation as difficult as possible for the migrants. The anti-Chinese legislation culminated in the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. This law prohibited migration of Chinese to America, migration of women of the Chinese who were already in America and also prohibited the naturalization of Chinese. Only workers who had already stayed in the country before November 17, 1880, were allowed to return after a period abroad.
Despite the measures of 1882, which remained intact until 1892, the Chinese population in the United States continued to increase. The population reached its peak in 1890 with 107,488 Chinese residents. After that, this number decreased steadily. This was not only the result of the consequences of the 1882 law, but was also triggered by the lack of Chinese women and the need to provide money for the home front. Actually, most Chinese people were in America with the intention of staying there only temporarily.
Conclusion
Various factors were the basis for the mass migration from China to America in the second half of the 19th century. On the one hand, internal tensions such as the Taiping Rebellion and international disputes such as the Opium War drove many Chinese away from their country. On the other hand, the attractiveness of the United States was also responsible for the great exodus. In particular, employment in the Californian gold mines and the need for cheap labor in the construction of the transcontinental train network attracted many Asians to America. After all, this country offered the opportunity to escape the miserable conditions that many Chinese endured in their native country. This led to more than a hundred thousand Chinese staying there in 1890.
Yet America could not really realize this ideal image. Initially , the migrants were tolerated, but in the 1850s a hostile attitude towards them gradually developed. This was based on the racial, cultural and political uniqueness of the Americans in their view as superiority and ultimately resulted in aggressive acts and anti-Chinese legislation. Despite the opposition of many Chinese, the anti-Chinese measures and hostility among white Americans and Europeans made for a difficult situation to live in. All Chinese gathered in the so-called Chinatowns in unsanitary conditions and were plagued by discriminatory measures.